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United Nations Secretary General Ban Ki-moon has welcomed the recent action taken by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) to address the threat of piracy and armed robbery against ships off the coast of Somalia as both timely and appropriate and has stated his intention to raise the matter with members of the UN Security Council on his return to New York.
At a meeting in London in July, IMO Secretary-General, Mr Efthimios E. Mitropoulos, briefed Mr Ban on the decision taken by the IMO Council, at a meeting in London last month, authorising him to request Mr Ban to bring the piracy situation off Somalia, once again, to the attention of the UN Security Council, for the latter to request the Transitional Federal Government of Somalia to take action to prevent and suppress acts of piracy and armed robbery against ships sailing off its coasts. Such action could include giving consent to naval ships or ships on Government service – as defined in Article 107 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea – to enter the country’s territorial waters when engaging in operations against pirates or suspected pirates and armed robbers endangering the safety of life at sea, in particular the safety of crews on board ships carrying, within the activities of the World Food Programme (WFP), humanitarian aid to Somalia or leaving Somali ports after having discharged their cargo.
In 2005 the number of reported attacks on ships off the coast of Somalia prompted the IMO Assembly to adopt a resolution which first brought the matter to the attention of the UN Security Council. This action resulted in a UN Security Council Presidential Statement, issued in March 2006, encouraging UN Member States with naval vessels and military aircraft operating in international waters and airspace adjacent to the coast of Somalia to be vigilant for piracy incidents and to take appropriate action to protect merchant shipping, and in particular ships being used to transport humanitarian aid, against any such act, in line with relevant international law. Subsequently, there had been a much-welcomed reduction in acts of piracy and armed robbery in the region.
Nevertheless, the continuing civil conflict and political instability in Somalia has lately given rise to renewed attacks on ships and a worrying increase in the number of reported incidents – including attacks on ships chartered by WFP. As a consequence, IMO and WFP had issued a joint statement earlier this week expressing their concern over the current situation, in which the supply of much-needed humanitarian aid to the stricken African country is being hampered by pirates and armed robbers. Their actions not only threaten the safety of life of those serving or travelling on ships involved, but also jeopardise the prospects of bringing relief to hundreds of thousands of Somalis in a country that faces immense problems because of the political situation and recurrent natural disasters.
Mr Mitropoulos took the opportunity to apprise Mr Ban of IMO’s efforts, in conjunction with the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR), to address the problem of migrants taking to the sea in overcrowded or sub-standard vessels. The two agencies have drawn up joint guidelines intended for masters, shipowners, government authorities, insurance companies, and other interested parties that may become involved in rescue situations. It provides guidance on relevant legal provisions, on practical procedures to ensure the prompt disembarkation of survivors of rescue operations, and on measures to meet their specific needs, particularly in the case of refugees and asylum-seekers. An inter-agency meeting, involving a number of other UN agencies and organisations is being organised for October of this year to take the matter forward.
Mr Ban stressed the importance of the various UN agencies, programs and funds to act in a coherent manner and deliver as one, as in the case of IMO and WFP working together on the piracy issue and IMO and UNHCR doing the same on the issue of undocumented migrants.
IMO Briefing 24/2007
Australian scientists have identified the missing deep ocean pathway – or ‘supergyre’ – linking the three Southern Hemisphere ocean basins in research that will help them explain more accurately how the ocean governs global climate. The new research confirms the current sweeping out of the Tasman Sea past Tasmania and towards the South Atlantic is a previously undetected component of the world climate system’s engine-room – the thermohaline circulation or ‘global conveyor belt’.
Wealth from Oceans Flagship scientist Ken Ridgway says the current, called the Tasman Outflow, occurs at an average depth of 800-1,000 metres and may play an important role in the response of the conveyor belt to climate change. CSIRO research findings confirm that the waters south of Tasmania form a ‘choke-point’ linking the major circulation cells in the Southern Hemisphere oceans.
‘In each ocean, water flows around anticlockwise pathways or “gyres’ the size of ocean basins,’ Mr Ridgway says. ‘These gyres are the mechanism that distribute nutrients from the deep ocean to generate life on the continental shelves and slopes. They also drive the circulation of the world’s oceans, creating currents and eddies and help balance the climate system by transferring ocean heat away from the tropics toward the polar region.’
He says the conventional picture of the Southern Hemisphere mid-latitude circulation comprises basin-wide but quite distinct gyres contained within the Indian, Pacific and Atlantic Oceans. However model simulations had suggested that these gyres are connected.
‘Recognising the scales and patterns of these subsurface water masses means they can be incorporated into the powerful models used by scientists to project how climate may change,’ he says.
The CSIRO team analysed thousands of temperature and salinity data samples collected between 1950 and 2002 by research ships, robotic ocean monitors and satellites in the region between 60°S and the Equator. They identified linkages between these gyres to form a global-scale ‘supergyre’ that transfers water to all three ocean basins.
Mr Ridgway and co-author Mr Jeff Dunn say identification of the supergyre improves the ability of researchers to more accurately explain how the ocean governs global climate.
Completed as part of the BLUElink ocean forecasting project, this research provides the missing deep-flow connection between the Pacific and Indian Oceans. It has long been known that north of Australia a system of currents in the ocean’s upper 300m, called the Indonesian Throughflow, drains water from the Pacific into the Indian Ocean through the Indonesian archipelago – a process which influences Australian rainfall.
Mr Ridgway says Tasmania figures as a critical converging point providing a northern boundary to the mid-water funnel that is bordered at latitudes near 50°S.
‘The interconnected gyre system and the East Australian Current provide the mechanism by which SubAntarctic Mode Water and Antarctic Intermediate Water are distributed between the ocean basins,’ he says. ‘The flows of these water masses have strong influences on the global climate and so monitoring changes in the transport of the Tasmanian connection may be an important measurement of the state of the global climate system.
‘Recognising the scales and patterns of these subsurface water masses means they can be incorporated into the powerful models used by scientists to project how climate may change,’ he says.
CSIRO Press Release
A new educational program to spread awareness of stormwater pollution has been released by the Australian Marine Environment Protection Association (AUSMEPA). AUSMEPA is a non-profit organisation that aims to inspire students of all ages to engage in education and actions that will raise the awareness of our marine environment. While doing this, AUSMEPA aims to work together with other marine education and maritime groups to protect the precious Australian marine environment.
Shipping and other marine industries and organisations support AUSMEPA through financial membership. This provides the opportunity for AUSMEPA to create marine environmental education and awareness resources. In turn it increases community recognition of the maritime industries role in marine environment management and sustainable practices.
Mr Michael Julian, AUSMEPA’s Executive Director, said in announcing the release of AUSMEPA’s latest internet-based school education program that most of the pollution in our seas and oceans is washed into the sea from the land and does not come from ships, fishing vessels or recreational craft.
AUSMEPA’s new education program, ‘Stormwater Pollution’ is available to all schools on the AUSMEPA website www.ausmepa.org.au
. The program has been designed for school students in their middle years. The educational program contains a complete unit of work plus free downloadable teacher’s resources, curriculum materials and student activity sheets providing enough material for teachers to quickly organise a unit of work on marine stormwater pollution.
Most of stormwater pollution in our sea can be avoided. Students will learn how they and the community can take fairly basic measures to protect the marine environment and how to present their ideas to their local community. The impact of stormwater on coral reef systems is potentially very severe.
A free Stormwater Pollution poster can be requested from the AUSMEPA website.
This is the third education program available to schools on the AUSMEPA website; others deal with marine pests, marine debris, ballast water problems, climate change and its effect on coral bleaching.
These free education programs are provided by AUSMEPA to meet the objective of making all users of the marine environment more aware of the importance of protecting the marine environment for future generations.
More information about AUSMEPA is available at www.ausmepa.org.au
.
Demonstrating its fervent commitment to preserving the marine environment, the commercial maritime industry in the US launched the North American Marine Environment Protection Association (NAMEPA) at the World Maritime Day Observance in New York on 25 October 2007. Consistent with the mission of MEPAs worldwide, the overall aim of NAMEPA is to increase environmental awareness and motivation of the human element within shipping and land-based industries which have a vested interest in the marine environment. NAMEPA’s additional goal is educating the wider public and the school communities about the critical need for marine environmental protection. Both goals will be met through cooperation with domestic and international organisations and the adoption of public awareness campaigns.
‘Whether we believe in global warming or just recognize that man’s impact on our planet needs to be addressed, the time is now for our industry to work together in creating solutions,’ stated NAMEPA’s Founding Chairman Clay Maitland and Managing Partner of International Registries Inc, which manages the Marshall Island’s ship registry, now the world’s 4th largest. ‘Protecting our marine environment is an opportunity to reverse existing trends and activities, and begin to work cooperatively towards what is good for all – not just a few. It is an opportunity to demonstrate our commitment to preserving the seas in which we ply our trade and upon which we depend for our livelihoods.’
Modelled after the 25-year-old Greek organisation HELMEPA, NAMEPA members will adopt a Declaration of Voluntary Commitment ‘To Save the Seas’. The objectives of a MEPA are to channel the efforts of its members in order to:
1. Encourage effective compliance of its members with national and international laws and regulations adopted for the protection of the marine environment from pollution;
2. Create and promote safety mindedness and security spirit within the industrial sectors involved in its membership;
3. Enhance quality standards and professional competence throughout its membership and especially the members from within the maritime community, with the means of a concerted training effort to educate and inform all, from the owner to the youngest employee of every participating company;
4. Cooperate with international organisations, i.e. the United Nations Environment Program (UNEP), the International Maritime Organization (IMO), as well as national agencies, i.e. Coast Guard, Port Authorities, Tourist Boards and any other entity whose aims coincide with those of the Association;
5. Promote relationships and/or partnerships with educational institutions (schools, colleges, universities, maritime academies and other) to further spread the voluntary commitment of MEPAs to the youth of today, who are the world’s future scientists, engineers, managers, politicians etc;
6. Publicly recognise individuals, associations, organisations, companies and any other that demonstrate outstanding achievements in the field of the protection of the marine environment from pollution.
The charter for NAMEPA was presented to Nicholas Pappadakis, Chairman of both INTERMEPA and HELMEPA at the World Maritime Day Observance and signed by members of the new organisation, as well as the Secretary-General of the IMO, Efthimios Mitropoulos.
In recognising the significance of the organisation’s founding, IMO Secretary-General Efthimios Mitropoulos stated ‘We have to approach this issue [of environment protection] with a sense of partnership and, if we can help to instil in everyone, not just younger people, a sense of how important it is that we work towards a cleaner, greener world, then so much the better… By establishing the North American MEPA you are showing your commitment to that cause and you have, I am certain, the wholehearted support of IMO, the maritime community, the people of North America and, indeed, of the wider world, for doing so.’
Membership in NAMEPA is open to corporations and individuals who demonstrate a commitment to preserving the marine environment. For more information see website at: www.namepa.net
. The parallel organisation to NAMEPA in Australia is the Australian Marine Environment Protection Association (AUSMEPA) (www.ausmepa.org.au
).
It was a ‘blue-letter’ day when the Bureau of Meteorology, Royal Australian Navy and Wealth from Oceans Flagship recently launched their BLUElink ocean forecast system at the Navy’s Heritage Centre on Garden Island in Sydney.
BLUElink provides a seven-day forecast of sea temperature, salinity and currents reflecting the complex movement of Australia’s offshore and coastal waters. This is the first time such information has been available operationally for the Australian ocean region.
CSIRO project leader Dr David Griffin says, ‘Understanding the ocean is vital for ensuring safety at sea, disaster mitigation, marine and offshore operations, marine environmental management, the fishing industry, and for defence operations.’
But forecasting the behaviour of the ocean presents a mammoth challenge. It is a vast and multifarious frontier that scientists are really only just beginning to understand. The intricate interrelationships between ocean and atmosphere, currents, salinity, temperature and a multitude of other factors demand science of the highest order to comprehend, model and predict.
‘BLUElink places Australia at the leading edge of ocean forecasting and provides significant new capabilities for naval and other marine operations, as well as for weather and climate research,’ explains Dr Griffin.
The Flagship collaborated with the Bureau of Meteorology to provide the scientific intelligence and computing power (through the High-Performance Computing and Communications Centre) for the BLUElink project. The Navy provided an important national security perspective and is a significant end user of the ocean forecast products generated by BLUElink.
According to Commander Andrew McCrindell, the Navy’s Director of Oceanography and Meteorology, ‘BLUElink gives the Navy a tactical advantage that we can exploit.
‘It provides us with a three dimensional perspective of the waters around Australia which provides us with information to support amphibious, submarine and mine warfare operations.’
Other ocean users will also benefit from BLUElink, for example by using the forecasts to better plan their routes to save time and fuel, avoid storms and efficiently use port facilities.
BLUElink’s sophisticated modelling uses data gathered from satellites and a global network of Argo ocean profilers to provide a detailed view of what is happening deep within the ocean.
Daily high-resolution analyses and twice-weekly forecasts are generated incorporating the latest changes in the weather and ocean, particularly in extreme conditions such as tropical cyclones.
The forecasting system was developed and tested using ocean and meteorological observations from 1992 onwards.
‘This has yielded the BLUElink Reanalysis – or BRAN – a huge, but simply structured, model-based synthesis of the existing marine data archive, filling an information gap that marine scientists, engineers and managers have been crying out for,’ Dr Griffin says.
The three partners have jointly invested $33 million in the BLUElink and BLUElink 2 projects.
‘In BLUElink 2 we will significantly improve the recently launched ocean forecasting system, and develop a near-shore wave and currents forecasting system and a new tropical cyclone model,’ says Dr Griffin.
‘Already BLUElink 1 is benefiting fisheries managers along the east coast and defence users.
‘With the launch of the suite of products and our ongoing commitment through the second phase of the research, many more will be able to take advantage of this remarkable technology.’
Courtesy CSIRO Wealth from Oceans Flagship
To view BLUElink products online see http://www.bom.gov.au/oceanography/forecasts/
.
For further information email David.Griffin@csiro.au
, or phone (03) 6232 5244.
The public hearings in the case concerning Sovereignty over Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge (Malaysia/Singapore) opened on Tuesday 6 November 2007 before the International Court of Justice (ICJ), principal judicial organ of the United Nations located at The Hague. Ambassador at Large Tommy Koh presented Singapore’s opening arguments.
On 24 July 2003, Malaysia and Singapore jointly submitted to the Court a dispute concerning sovereignty over Pedra Branca/ Pulau Batu Puteh, Middle Rocks and South Ledge. They did so by notifying the Court of a Special Agreement between them which was signed on 6 February 2003 at Putrajaya in Malaysia and entered into force on 9 May 2003. In the Special Agreement, the Parties request the Court ‘to determine whether sovereignty over: (a) Pedra Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh; (b) Middle Rocks; (c) South Ledge, belongs to Malaysia or the Republic of Singapore’. They agree in advance ‘to accept the Judgment of the Court... as final and binding upon them’.
The sovereignty dispute is over a chain of three rocky islets located at the eastern entrance of the Singapore Strait, about 15 km (10 miles) off peninsular Malaysia’s southern coast. The main rocky outcrop – 137 metres by 60 metres – is known as Pulau Batu Puteh in Malaysia and Pedra Branca in Singapore, and as Horsburgh Light to earlier generations of mariners using Singapore Strait. The court will also determine the status of two other nearby islets known as Middle Rocks and South Ledge.
Singapore claims sovereignty of Pedra Branca as it is the successor to Britain, the former colonial power, which acquired sovereignty more than 100 years ago by building a lighthouse on the outcrop. Singapore has also built other facilities, including a water desalination plant and a helicopter pad, and has flown its marine ensign over Pedra Branca since Independence in 1965.
The significance of the feature lies in its strategic position and the 200-mile Exclusive Economic Zone, which can be drawn around the island, and its impact on maritime boundary delimitation. At present there are no maritime boundaries in this area.
Malaysia’s case may be motivated largely by the successful outcome of an earlier ICJ decision that awarded sovereignty over Sipidan and Ligitan islands off the east coast of Borneo to Malaysia rather than Indonesia. Ironically the arguments now being used by Singapore to support its sovereignty claim to Pulau Branca/Pulau Batu Puteh are similar to those used by Malaysia in the Sipidan/Ligitan case.
Malaysia did not protest the sovereignty issue when Singapore gained independence and became sovereign over its island territories. In 1953, the acting secretary of the Johor state government even issued a statement clearly saying that it did not claim Pedra Branca. Malaysian maps, as late as 1974, also showed Pedra Branca as belonging to Singapore. In 1979, Malaysia for the first time published a new map which included the island of Pedra Branca in its territory.
In 1989, Singapore proposed to refer Malaysia’s claim to the International Court of Justice, in The Hague, for resolution. On 17 February 1992, Singapore also presented to Malaysia documents to prove the republic’s ownership over Pedra Branca. However, on 29 June 1992, Malaysia in turn handed to the Singapore Government a memorandum entitled Malaysia’s Sovereignty over Pulau Batu Puteh.
Malaysia argued that the Sultan of Johor had exercised sovereignty over the rock since 1513 when the Johor-Riau-Lingga Sultanate was founded by Sultan Mahmud, who fled from the Portuguese when Malacca was captured in 1511. According to the Malaysian view, based on the theory of state succession, Pulau Batu Puteh belongs to the Federation of Malaysia because it was part of the Federation of Malaya into which in turn the Sultanate of Johor was merged when it joined the newly formed independent state in 1957. Malaysia further maintains that the fact that Singapore had built and still operates the lighthouse thereon does not affect its own original title to the rock. Malaysia is virtually saying that state succession argument favours Malaysia because Pulau Batu Puteh belonged to the Federation of Malaya before the British came on the scene.
Singapore, on the other hand, maintains that it has full territorial sovereignty and jurisdiction over the rock due to the Anglo-Dutch Treaty agreed to and administered by the British East India Company whose legal successor Singapore is. The Company (and later the Singapore Government) had built a lighthouse on the island and maintained it since 1851. No government authority (neither Johor nor Malaysia) had up to 1979 objected against this status, or had made any claim to the contrary. Singapore therefore considers the rock to be legally part of its territory.
Four factors may play against Malaysia’s claims to the islands. First, the domestically produced maps of Malaysia, as late as 1974, do not indicate the islands of Pedra Branca as part of the Federation. In fact, these same maps show the islands as territories of Singapore. This highlights the fact that Malaysia had to overlook its earlier published maps to assert its claim over the islands in 1979. Secondly, the contradictory statements made in 1953 by the acting Malaysian Secretary of State of Johor, in which he explicitly stated that Malaysia did not lay claim to the islands of Pedra Branca. Thirdly, when the British left the region, the islands remained in the hands of Singapore, without objection from Malaysia. This assumed ownership was not questioned by Malaysia under unification and again after separation. This gives rise to the claim of official legal ownership due to the fact that the islands were in the sole uncontested possession of Singapore for more than a century. Fourthly, between 1979 and 2003, Malaysia has made no serious attempt to pursue the signing and ratification of the Special Agreements for the ICJ until this same court ruled in favour of Malaysia’s case against Indonesia over the islands of Sipidan and Ligitan on 17 December 2003.
A judgment in the case is expected next year.
With the longest coastline of any Australian State, Western Australia can lay claim to being the nation’s ‘marine state’. Now it also boasts a unique marine science research hub that will provide the sound science that underpins good decision-making, helping to preserve our coastline and its bounty for future generations. It will also make the State an international hot spot for marine science research…
From the steely blue of the Southern Ocean to the mangrove-fringed waters of the tropical north, the oceans that girdle Australia have a profound effect on climate and rainfall – and on the lives of the majority of Australians who live on the coast. With the longest coastline of any state and marine waters that support major industries, from pearling to shipbuilding to offshore gas and petroleum developments, Western Australia can lay claim to the title, ‘the Marine State’. The coastline of Western Australia also boasts assets of international importance – mudflats that annually accommodate thousands of migrating northern hemisphere birds, the spectacular coral gardens of Ningaloo Marine Park and a World Heritage listed icon, Shark Bay. Indigenous Australians were sustained by Shark Bay’s marine environment long before the pioneer settlers of the Swan River Colony came in search of the Bay’s creamy pearls, its aromatic sandalwood and guano. And they quickly discovered that you could effortlessly feed a family on the snapper, mullet and tuna that refrigerated vessels would later carry to the capital city and beyond. Today this fishery and others along the west coast are a valuable source of export dollars and World Heritage status assures a steady stream of tourism dollars, as travellers and researchers converge on a marine and coastal destination like no other.
But how do we protect these pristine marine wonderlands that are nurseries for fish stock when our coastline is facing unprecedented development, and the demands of stakeholders as diverse as tour leaders of snorkelling backpackers from Japan to oil and gas companies charting offshore developments to feed the world’s insatiable demand for energy? How do we facilitate the exploitation of the chemical compounds contained within sponges that divers admire – and, that scientists suspect could potentially also offer cures to some diseases? And how do we gauge the possible effects of climate change on the Leeuwin Current, that unique swathe of southward-flowing warm water that has such a beneficial impact on our climate, agriculture and the diversity of our fish stocks?
Dr Steve Blake, Chief Executive Officer of the newly-launched UWA-based Western Australian Marine Science Institution gives a straight and simple answer to these questions: ‘Good science, good decisions, good management.’ The Western Australian Marine Science Institution (WAMSI) aims to be the provider of the good science, bringing together 14 State, national and industry organisations with researchers and students from local universities. Together they will undertake the frontier strategic science necessary to meet the challenges of today and to set a pathway for the future. When WAMSI was launched recently by WA Premier Alan Carpenter in the presence of scientific luminaries, industry leaders and passionate conservationists – including that great champion of the marine environment, author Tim Winton – there was an upbeat atmosphere. Everyone, it seems, is passionate about protecting our coastline. ‘WA is known for its fantastic lifestyle and our marine environment is a large part of this drawcard,’ said the Premier. ‘We’re committed to ensuring that our marine and coastal biodiversity and pristine environment are around for future generations. Climate change, population growth and industrial, social and economic development are putting pressure on our marine ecosystems in a way never before experienced. ‘What we need is the science and knowledge to preserve our abundant marine life. WAMSI will help establish WA as a world-leader in marine science, education and marine resource management. Nowhere else in Australia has this kind of forward thinking, collaborative approach to marine issues occurred, and the long-term benefits to WA will be immense,’ the Premier stated.
By its nature, marine science is highly multi-disciplinary in nature, so WAMSI involves partnerships between research bodies supported by Federal and State Governments, the Bureau of Meteorology, CSIRO, the Australian Institute of Marine Science (AIMS), the WA Global Ocean Observing System, WA’s four public universities, the WA Museum, the Departments of Environment and Conservation, Industry and Resources, Fisheries, as well as Woodside Energy and BHP Billiton Petroleum, the two industry foundation collaborators.
WAMSI’s reach will be impressive – investigating the challenges posed by climate change and undertaking the strategic scientific research for the conservation of marine icons such as Ningaloo Reef and Shark Bay. It will prospect the marine environment for biological compounds that have potential uses in agriculture, medicine or the environment. It will work to ensure that our fisheries remain sustainable, exploring ways of reducing the by-catch of commercial fishing and introducing flexible harvest regimes that work in harmony with the natural environment. It will advance our understanding of ocean conditions in support of offshore and coastal engineering. ‘Western Australia has some of the last true coastal and marine wilderness areas left in Australia, so we have to look at our national and international responsibilities in this regard. We have to start to produce broad-based regional environmental studies involving all the stakeholders that will help us to understand and monitor these special areas for future generations. Shark Bay, with its healthy dugong population and vast seagrass meadows, is World Heritage-listed, but the amount of research funding that goes into it probably is out of proportion with its status as a natural icon,’ says Dr Blake. ‘WAMSI is not a lobby group. We are politically agnostic. What we do do is to provide State or Federal Governments and industry bodies with the findings of large impartial scientific research projects, using the best teams of scientists available. It’s then up to the stakeholders to make decisions in the light of this information. I believe that if we get the broad-based studies we need in place now, the future is bright. If we don’t, we will be left with less-informed policy and management decisions, rather than management based on agreed, defensible scientific data.’
To launch the Institute’s research, six interlinking research programs were identified, and top-up scholarships were awarded to eight PhD students. The foundation PhD studies include a focus on the Leeuwin Current, fisheries management in the Peel-Harvey region, the use of acoustic techniques for assessing fish aggregations and the mapping of sediments at Ningaloo Reef. The Institution is located in UWA’s School of Plant Biology, which also accommodates AIMS’ WA Office.
For more information, visit the website: www.wamsi.org.au.
Trish Wiltshire – UNIVIEW (UNIVIEW is the magazine of the University of Western Australia and may be viewed at http://www.publishing.uwa.edu.au)
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URL: http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MarStudies/2007/32.html